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March 8, 2019
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August 26, 2019
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August 26, 2019
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Abstract
One of the most important academic skills university students are expected to demonstrate is critical thinking. There is, however, a widespread view that, as a result of their cultural and educational backgrounds, students from east Asia find critical thinking particularly challenging. This paper critically examines this contention. It begins by analysing existing research on three broad themes: (1) cultural attitudes and dispositions towards critical thinking; (2) international comparisons of scores on critical thinking tests; (3) the impact of L1 and L2 use on academic performance. It also presents data from a study conducted by the author comparing the performance of Japanese students on a critical thinking task in their L1 and L2. It finds that, contrary to the accepted wisdom, there is little objective evidence to suggest Asian students are deficient in critical thinking in the broad sense of the term, either in disposition or ability. The lack of critical thinking skills apparently displayed by these students in Western contexts can largely be blamed on the issue of language proficiency. This finding has implications for academic skill courses in both EFL and ESL settings.
Article Details
How to Cite
Rear, D. (2019). International Comparisons of Critical Thinking: Correcting Myths about Asian Students. Journal of ELT Research: The Academic Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Learning, 4(2), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.22236/JER_Vol4Issue2pp31-41
References
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Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Atkinson, D. (1997). A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 31(1), 71-94.
Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. R., & Daniels, L. B. (1999). Conceptualizing critical thinking. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(3), 285–302.
Ballard, B. & Clanchy, J. (1991). Teaching students from overseas: A brief guide for lecturers and supervisors. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: D. McKay Co.
Campbell, A., Adams, V., & Davis, G. (2007). Cognitive demands and second-language learners: A framework for analyzing mathematics instructional contexts. Mathematical Thinking and Learning 9(1), 3-30.
Clerehan, R. (1995). Taking it down: Notetaking practices of L1 and L2 students. English for Specific Purposes, 14, 137-155.
Cook, V. (1993). Linguistics and second language acquisition. London: Macmillan.
Egege, S. & Kutieleh, S. (2004). Critical thinking: Teaching foreign notions to foreign students. International Education Journal, 4(4), 75-85.
Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational Leadership, 43(2), 44–48.
Ennis, R. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. In J. Baron & R.J.
Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice (pp. 9-26). New York, NY: W. H.
Freeman and Company.
Facione, P. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus – The Delphi Report. California: California Academic Press.
Facione, P. A. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement, and relation to critical thinking skill. Informal Logic, 20(1), 61–84.
Gieve, S. (1998). Comments on Dwight Atkinson's ‘A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 32(1), 123-129.
Halpern, D. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Halpern, D. (2007a). The nature and nurture of critical thinking. In R.J. Sternberg, H. Roediger & D. Halpern (Eds.), Critical thinking in psychology (pp.1-14). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Halpern, D. (2007b). Halpern critical thinking assessment using everyday situations: Background and scoring standards. Claremont, CA: Claremont McKenna College.
Hau, K. T., Halpern, D., Marin-Burkhart, L., Ho, I. T., Ku, K. Y. L. & Chan, N. M. (2006, April). Chinese and United States Students' critical thinking: Cross-cultural validation of a critical thinking assessment. Paper presented at American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, San Francisco.
He, H., Zhang, Y.M., & Zhao, Y.Q. (2006). [A survey of critical thinking ability in college students]. Chinese Nursing Research, 20(3), 775–776.
Hernandez, J. (2016). Study finds Chinese students excel at critical thinking. Until college. New York Times, 30 July. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com
Jones, A. (2005). Culture and context: Critical thinking and student learning in introductory macroeconomics. Studies in Higher Education 30(3), 339-354.
Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lun, V., Fischer, R. & Ward, C. (2010). Exploring cultural differences in critical thinking: Is it about my thinking style or is it the language I speak? Learning and Individual Differences 20, 604-616.
Luo, Q.X., & Yang, X.H. (2001). [Revision for CCTDI (Chinese version)]. Psychological Development and Education, 3, 47–51.
Manalo, E., Kusumi, T., Koyasu, M., Michita, Y. & Tanaka, Y. (2013). To what extent do culture-related factors influence university students' critical thinking use? Thinking Skills and Creativity 10, 121-132.
Manalo, E., Watanabe, K. & Sheppard, C. (2013, August). Do language structure or language proficiency affect critical evaluation? Paper presented at 35th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Berlin, Germany.
Manalo, E., & Uesaka, Y. (2012). Elucidating the mechanism of spontaneous diagram use in explanations: How cognitive processing of text and diagrammatic representations is influenced by individual and task-related factors. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, 7352, 35–50.
McBride, R., Xiang, P., Wittenburg, D. & Shen, J. (2002). An analysis of preservice teachers' dispositions toward critical thinking: A cross-cultural perspective. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 30(2), 131-140.
Moore, T. (2011). Critical thinking and language: The challenge of generic skills and disciplinary discourse. London: Bloomsbury.
Mulvey, B. (2016). Writing instruction: What is being taught in Japanese high schools, why, and why it matters. The Language Teacher 40(3), 3-8.
Nickerson, R., Perkins, D., & Smith, E. (1985). Teaching thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
OECD (2014) PISA 2012 results: creative problem solving. OECD (http://www.oecd.org).
Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist 38, 63-71.
Paton, M. (2005). Is critical analysis foreign to Chinese students? In E. Manalo & G. Wong-Toi (Eds.), Communication skills in university education: The international dimension (pp.1-11). Auckland, New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand.
Paul, R. W. (1992). Critical thinking: What, why, and how? New Directions for Community Colleges, 1992(77), 3–24.
Paul, R. & Nosich, G. (1991). A proposal for the national assessment of higher-order thinking. Paper commissioned by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement National Center for Education Statistics.
Rear, D. (2017). The language deficit: A comparison of the critical thinking skills of Asian students in first and second language contexts. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 2(13), 1-15.
Scott, J. & Markert, R. (1994). Relationship between critical thinking skills and success in pre-clinical courses. Academic Medicine 69, 920-924.
Shaheen, N. (2016). International students' critical thinking-related problem areas: UK university teachers' perspectives. Journal of Research in International Education 15(1), 18-31.
Siller, T. (2001). Sustainability and critical thinking in civil engineering curriculum. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice 127(3), 104-108.
Takano, Y., & Noda, A. (1993). A temporary decline of thinking ability during foreign language processing. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24(4), 445-462.
Tian, J. (2008). The influence of undergraduate learning contexts on Chinese graduate students' argumentation and critical thinking in writing (Unpublished PhD thesis). University of York, York.
Tian, J. & Low, G. (2011). Critical thinking and Chinese university students: a review of the evidence. Language, Culture and Communication 24(1), 61-76.
Tiwary, A., Avery, A. & Lai, P. (2003). Critical thinking disposition of Hong Kong Chinese and Australian nursing students. Journal of Advanced Nursing 44(3), 298-307.
Vasagar, J. (2014, May 20). Countries that excel at problem-solving encourage critical thinking. Financial Times. Retrieved from https://www.ft.com/content/e512db9c-c643-11e3-ba0e-00144feabdc0
Yeh, M.-L., & Chen, H. (2005). Effects of an educational program with interactive videodisc systems in improving critical thinking dispositions for RN-BSN students in Taiwan. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 42(3), 333–340.
References
Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Atkinson, D. (1997). A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 31(1), 71-94.
Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. R., & Daniels, L. B. (1999). Conceptualizing critical thinking. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(3), 285–302.
Ballard, B. & Clanchy, J. (1991). Teaching students from overseas: A brief guide for lecturers and supervisors. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: D. McKay Co.
Campbell, A., Adams, V., & Davis, G. (2007). Cognitive demands and second-language learners: A framework for analyzing mathematics instructional contexts. Mathematical Thinking and Learning 9(1), 3-30.
Clerehan, R. (1995). Taking it down: Notetaking practices of L1 and L2 students. English for Specific Purposes, 14, 137-155.
Cook, V. (1993). Linguistics and second language acquisition. London: Macmillan.
Egege, S. & Kutieleh, S. (2004). Critical thinking: Teaching foreign notions to foreign students. International Education Journal, 4(4), 75-85.
Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational Leadership, 43(2), 44–48.
Ennis, R. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. In J. Baron & R.J.
Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice (pp. 9-26). New York, NY: W. H.
Freeman and Company.
Facione, P. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus – The Delphi Report. California: California Academic Press.
Facione, P. A. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement, and relation to critical thinking skill. Informal Logic, 20(1), 61–84.
Gieve, S. (1998). Comments on Dwight Atkinson's ‘A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 32(1), 123-129.
Halpern, D. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Halpern, D. (2007a). The nature and nurture of critical thinking. In R.J. Sternberg, H. Roediger & D. Halpern (Eds.), Critical thinking in psychology (pp.1-14). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Halpern, D. (2007b). Halpern critical thinking assessment using everyday situations: Background and scoring standards. Claremont, CA: Claremont McKenna College.
Hau, K. T., Halpern, D., Marin-Burkhart, L., Ho, I. T., Ku, K. Y. L. & Chan, N. M. (2006, April). Chinese and United States Students' critical thinking: Cross-cultural validation of a critical thinking assessment. Paper presented at American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, San Francisco.
He, H., Zhang, Y.M., & Zhao, Y.Q. (2006). [A survey of critical thinking ability in college students]. Chinese Nursing Research, 20(3), 775–776.
Hernandez, J. (2016). Study finds Chinese students excel at critical thinking. Until college. New York Times, 30 July. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com
Jones, A. (2005). Culture and context: Critical thinking and student learning in introductory macroeconomics. Studies in Higher Education 30(3), 339-354.
Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lun, V., Fischer, R. & Ward, C. (2010). Exploring cultural differences in critical thinking: Is it about my thinking style or is it the language I speak? Learning and Individual Differences 20, 604-616.
Luo, Q.X., & Yang, X.H. (2001). [Revision for CCTDI (Chinese version)]. Psychological Development and Education, 3, 47–51.
Manalo, E., Kusumi, T., Koyasu, M., Michita, Y. & Tanaka, Y. (2013). To what extent do culture-related factors influence university students' critical thinking use? Thinking Skills and Creativity 10, 121-132.
Manalo, E., Watanabe, K. & Sheppard, C. (2013, August). Do language structure or language proficiency affect critical evaluation? Paper presented at 35th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Berlin, Germany.
Manalo, E., & Uesaka, Y. (2012). Elucidating the mechanism of spontaneous diagram use in explanations: How cognitive processing of text and diagrammatic representations is influenced by individual and task-related factors. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, 7352, 35–50.
McBride, R., Xiang, P., Wittenburg, D. & Shen, J. (2002). An analysis of preservice teachers' dispositions toward critical thinking: A cross-cultural perspective. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 30(2), 131-140.
Moore, T. (2011). Critical thinking and language: The challenge of generic skills and disciplinary discourse. London: Bloomsbury.
Mulvey, B. (2016). Writing instruction: What is being taught in Japanese high schools, why, and why it matters. The Language Teacher 40(3), 3-8.
Nickerson, R., Perkins, D., & Smith, E. (1985). Teaching thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
OECD (2014) PISA 2012 results: creative problem solving. OECD (http://www.oecd.org).
Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist 38, 63-71.
Paton, M. (2005). Is critical analysis foreign to Chinese students? In E. Manalo & G. Wong-Toi (Eds.), Communication skills in university education: The international dimension (pp.1-11). Auckland, New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand.
Paul, R. W. (1992). Critical thinking: What, why, and how? New Directions for Community Colleges, 1992(77), 3–24.
Paul, R. & Nosich, G. (1991). A proposal for the national assessment of higher-order thinking. Paper commissioned by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement National Center for Education Statistics.
Rear, D. (2017). The language deficit: A comparison of the critical thinking skills of Asian students in first and second language contexts. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 2(13), 1-15.
Scott, J. & Markert, R. (1994). Relationship between critical thinking skills and success in pre-clinical courses. Academic Medicine 69, 920-924.
Shaheen, N. (2016). International students' critical thinking-related problem areas: UK university teachers' perspectives. Journal of Research in International Education 15(1), 18-31.
Siller, T. (2001). Sustainability and critical thinking in civil engineering curriculum. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice 127(3), 104-108.
Takano, Y., & Noda, A. (1993). A temporary decline of thinking ability during foreign language processing. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24(4), 445-462.
Tian, J. (2008). The influence of undergraduate learning contexts on Chinese graduate students' argumentation and critical thinking in writing (Unpublished PhD thesis). University of York, York.
Tian, J. & Low, G. (2011). Critical thinking and Chinese university students: a review of the evidence. Language, Culture and Communication 24(1), 61-76.
Tiwary, A., Avery, A. & Lai, P. (2003). Critical thinking disposition of Hong Kong Chinese and Australian nursing students. Journal of Advanced Nursing 44(3), 298-307.
Vasagar, J. (2014, May 20). Countries that excel at problem-solving encourage critical thinking. Financial Times. Retrieved from https://www.ft.com/content/e512db9c-c643-11e3-ba0e-00144feabdc0
Yeh, M.-L., & Chen, H. (2005). Effects of an educational program with interactive videodisc systems in improving critical thinking dispositions for RN-BSN students in Taiwan. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 42(3), 333–340.
Atkinson, D. (1997). A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 31(1), 71-94.
Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. R., & Daniels, L. B. (1999). Conceptualizing critical thinking. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(3), 285–302.
Ballard, B. & Clanchy, J. (1991). Teaching students from overseas: A brief guide for lecturers and supervisors. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: D. McKay Co.
Campbell, A., Adams, V., & Davis, G. (2007). Cognitive demands and second-language learners: A framework for analyzing mathematics instructional contexts. Mathematical Thinking and Learning 9(1), 3-30.
Clerehan, R. (1995). Taking it down: Notetaking practices of L1 and L2 students. English for Specific Purposes, 14, 137-155.
Cook, V. (1993). Linguistics and second language acquisition. London: Macmillan.
Egege, S. & Kutieleh, S. (2004). Critical thinking: Teaching foreign notions to foreign students. International Education Journal, 4(4), 75-85.
Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational Leadership, 43(2), 44–48.
Ennis, R. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. In J. Baron & R.J.
Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice (pp. 9-26). New York, NY: W. H.
Freeman and Company.
Facione, P. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus – The Delphi Report. California: California Academic Press.
Facione, P. A. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement, and relation to critical thinking skill. Informal Logic, 20(1), 61–84.
Gieve, S. (1998). Comments on Dwight Atkinson's ‘A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 32(1), 123-129.
Halpern, D. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Halpern, D. (2007a). The nature and nurture of critical thinking. In R.J. Sternberg, H. Roediger & D. Halpern (Eds.), Critical thinking in psychology (pp.1-14). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Halpern, D. (2007b). Halpern critical thinking assessment using everyday situations: Background and scoring standards. Claremont, CA: Claremont McKenna College.
Hau, K. T., Halpern, D., Marin-Burkhart, L., Ho, I. T., Ku, K. Y. L. & Chan, N. M. (2006, April). Chinese and United States Students' critical thinking: Cross-cultural validation of a critical thinking assessment. Paper presented at American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, San Francisco.
He, H., Zhang, Y.M., & Zhao, Y.Q. (2006). [A survey of critical thinking ability in college students]. Chinese Nursing Research, 20(3), 775–776.
Hernandez, J. (2016). Study finds Chinese students excel at critical thinking. Until college. New York Times, 30 July. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com
Jones, A. (2005). Culture and context: Critical thinking and student learning in introductory macroeconomics. Studies in Higher Education 30(3), 339-354.
Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lun, V., Fischer, R. & Ward, C. (2010). Exploring cultural differences in critical thinking: Is it about my thinking style or is it the language I speak? Learning and Individual Differences 20, 604-616.
Luo, Q.X., & Yang, X.H. (2001). [Revision for CCTDI (Chinese version)]. Psychological Development and Education, 3, 47–51.
Manalo, E., Kusumi, T., Koyasu, M., Michita, Y. & Tanaka, Y. (2013). To what extent do culture-related factors influence university students' critical thinking use? Thinking Skills and Creativity 10, 121-132.
Manalo, E., Watanabe, K. & Sheppard, C. (2013, August). Do language structure or language proficiency affect critical evaluation? Paper presented at 35th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Berlin, Germany.
Manalo, E., & Uesaka, Y. (2012). Elucidating the mechanism of spontaneous diagram use in explanations: How cognitive processing of text and diagrammatic representations is influenced by individual and task-related factors. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, 7352, 35–50.
McBride, R., Xiang, P., Wittenburg, D. & Shen, J. (2002). An analysis of preservice teachers' dispositions toward critical thinking: A cross-cultural perspective. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 30(2), 131-140.
Moore, T. (2011). Critical thinking and language: The challenge of generic skills and disciplinary discourse. London: Bloomsbury.
Mulvey, B. (2016). Writing instruction: What is being taught in Japanese high schools, why, and why it matters. The Language Teacher 40(3), 3-8.
Nickerson, R., Perkins, D., & Smith, E. (1985). Teaching thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
OECD (2014) PISA 2012 results: creative problem solving. OECD (http://www.oecd.org).
Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist 38, 63-71.
Paton, M. (2005). Is critical analysis foreign to Chinese students? In E. Manalo & G. Wong-Toi (Eds.), Communication skills in university education: The international dimension (pp.1-11). Auckland, New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand.
Paul, R. W. (1992). Critical thinking: What, why, and how? New Directions for Community Colleges, 1992(77), 3–24.
Paul, R. & Nosich, G. (1991). A proposal for the national assessment of higher-order thinking. Paper commissioned by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement National Center for Education Statistics.
Rear, D. (2017). The language deficit: A comparison of the critical thinking skills of Asian students in first and second language contexts. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 2(13), 1-15.
Scott, J. & Markert, R. (1994). Relationship between critical thinking skills and success in pre-clinical courses. Academic Medicine 69, 920-924.
Shaheen, N. (2016). International students' critical thinking-related problem areas: UK university teachers' perspectives. Journal of Research in International Education 15(1), 18-31.
Siller, T. (2001). Sustainability and critical thinking in civil engineering curriculum. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice 127(3), 104-108.
Takano, Y., & Noda, A. (1993). A temporary decline of thinking ability during foreign language processing. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24(4), 445-462.
Tian, J. (2008). The influence of undergraduate learning contexts on Chinese graduate students' argumentation and critical thinking in writing (Unpublished PhD thesis). University of York, York.
Tian, J. & Low, G. (2011). Critical thinking and Chinese university students: a review of the evidence. Language, Culture and Communication 24(1), 61-76.
Tiwary, A., Avery, A. & Lai, P. (2003). Critical thinking disposition of Hong Kong Chinese and Australian nursing students. Journal of Advanced Nursing 44(3), 298-307.
Vasagar, J. (2014, May 20). Countries that excel at problem-solving encourage critical thinking. Financial Times. Retrieved from https://www.ft.com/content/e512db9c-c643-11e3-ba0e-00144feabdc0
Yeh, M.-L., & Chen, H. (2005). Effects of an educational program with interactive videodisc systems in improving critical thinking dispositions for RN-BSN students in Taiwan. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 42(3), 333–340.